| Foreword: What LGTS Intends to Be | 6 |
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| Preface | 8 |
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| Contents | 10 |
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| Contributors | 12 |
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| 1 Introduction: Theory and Methodology in Legal Ontology Engineering: Experiences and Future Directions | 15 |
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| 1.1 Legal Ontologies Come of Age | 15 |
| 1.1.1 Legal Ontologies in Legal Thinking | 16 |
| 1.2 New Directions in Semantic Web Research: Rethinking Ontologies | 18 |
| 1.3 Approaches to Legal Ontologies: Experience and Future Directions | 23 |
| References | 27 |
| 2 The Legal Theory Perspective: Doctrinal Conceptual Systems vs. Computational Ontologies | 29 |
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| 2.1 Introduction. Legal Doctrine and Legal Theory as a Source for Building Legal Ontologies | 29 |
| 2.2 Legal Concepts: Striking a Balance Between Legal Interpretation and Ontological Categories | 31 |
| 2.2.1 The Mutual Dependence of Legal Concepts on Legal Norms | 32 |
| 2.2.2 Why Systems of Legal Concepts May Still Be Useful: The Interplay of Theoretical, Doctrinal and Sociological Analysis of Legal Contents | 36 |
| 2.3 Systems of Legal Concepts in Legal Doctrine | 37 |
| 2.3.1 System of Concepts, Their Topological and Semantic Properties and Methodology for Exploring Them | 38 |
| 2.3.2 System of Concepts in Ontologies | 40 |
| 2.3.3 Systems of Concepts in Legal Doctrine | 41 |
| 2.4 Types of Systems of Legal Concepts | 43 |
| 2.4.1 Degree of Abstraction | 43 |
| 2.4.2 Types of Semantic Relations | 46 |
| 2.4.3 Other Forms of Conceptual Organisation in Legal Doctrine | 51 |
| 2.5 A Mapping Between Doctrinal Conceptual Structures and Computational Ontologies | 54 |
| 2.6 Conclusions and Further Work | 57 |
| References | 59 |
| 3 Empirically Grounded Developments of Legal Ontologies: A Socio-Legal Perspective | 62 |
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| 3.1 Introduction: Wrestling with the Angel | 62 |
| 3.2 The Socio-Legal Approach: Pluralism and Legal Culture | 63 |
| 3.2.1 Legal Pluralism | 64 |
| 3.2.2 Legal Culture | 65 |
| 3.3 An Ontology-Enhanced Decision Support System for Judges: iuriservice | 66 |
| 3.3.1 Empirical-Based Design and Knowledge Acquisition | 67 |
| 3.3.2 The Ontology of Professional Judicial Knowledge | 71 |
| 3.3.3 User-Centered Approach: Expert Involvement | 73 |
| 3.4 Final Remarks | 76 |
| References | 77 |
| 4 A Cognitive Science Perspective on Legal Ontologies | 81 |
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| 4.1 Introduction | 81 |
| 4.2 Origins of Ontological Engineering | 82 |
| 4.2.1 Philosophy (1) Ontology | 82 |
| 4.2.2 Philosophy (2) Lingua Universalis Philosophica | 83 |
| 4.2.3 Artificial Intelligence | 84 |
| 4.2.4 Knowledge Engineering | 84 |
| 4.2.5 Semantic Web | 85 |
| 4.3 Knowledge and Semantics | 85 |
| 4.4 Formalisms, Reasoning and Information Management | 87 |
| 4.5 A CS Perspective for Top Ontologies | 89 |
| 4.6 Some Paradoxes for Conclusions | 91 |
| References | 92 |
| 5 Social Ontology and Documentality | 94 |
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| 5.1 Introduction | 94 |
| 5.2 Physical, Ideal and Social Objects | 95 |
| 5.3 The Discovery of Social Objects | 96 |
| 5.4 X Counts as Y in C | 97 |
| 5.5 No (Social) Thing Exists Outside Texts | 99 |
| 5.6 Object = Inscribed Act | 101 |
| 5.7 Documentality | 103 |
| 5.8 Conclusions | 106 |
| References | 106 |
| 6 The Case-Based Reasoning Approach: Ontologies for Analogical Legal Argument | 109 |
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| 6.1 Introduction | 109 |
| 6.2 Definitions and Roles | 109 |
| 6.3 Extended Example | 110 |
| 6.4 Requirements for a Case-Based Legal Ontology | 114 |
| 6.4.1 For Representing Cases | 115 |
| 6.4.2 For Explaining Case Decisions | 116 |
| 6.4.3 For Representing Case-Based Arguments | 118 |
| 6.5 Using the Ontology to Model Arguments with Hypothetical Cases | 118 |
| 6.6 Challenges for a CBR Ontology | 120 |
| 6.7 Conclusions | 123 |
| References | 124 |
| 7 A Complex-System Approach: Legal Knowledge, Ontology, Information and Networks | 126 |
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| 7.1 Introduction | 126 |
| 7.2 Ontology Development: Dealing with Natural Language | 127 |
| 7.3 A Complex-Systems Approach Applied to Legal Corpus and Legal Ontology | 131 |
| 7.4 Mapping an Ontology on a Corpus via a Probability Measure | 132 |
| 7.5 Ontology, Information and Legal Corpus | 135 |
| 7.6 Scaling Issues in the Ontology Mapping | 137 |
| 7.7 Discussion and Perspectives | 139 |
| 7.7.1 Discussion about Information Functions in Ontology Building | 139 |
| 7.7.2 The Complex Systems Approach and the Human Expertise | 140 |
| References | 140 |
| 8 The Multi-Layered Legal Information Perspective | 142 |
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| 8.1 Introduction | 142 |
| 8.2 The Interoperability Issue | 143 |
| 8.3 The Multilayered Legal Information Perspective: A Tentative Procedural Model | 145 |
| 8.4 A Scenario | 145 |
| References | 149 |
| 9 Legal Ontologies: The Linguistic Perspective | 151 |
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| 9.1 Introduction | 151 |
| 9.2 Language and Law | 152 |
| 9.3 Legal Text Analysis | 154 |
| 9.3.1 The Semantics of Textual Structures | 154 |
| 9.3.2 The Construction of Legal Concepts | 155 |
| 9.3.3 The Computational Models | 156 |
| 9.4 A Bottom--Up Methodology for Ontology Building | 158 |
| 9.4.1 Lexical Ontologies | 158 |
| 9.4.2 Anchoring Terminologies to a Reference Ontology | 160 |
| 9.5 The Next Step: Frames Detection | 162 |
| 9.6 The Gap Between Text and Knowledge | 165 |
| 9.6.1 Bridging the Gap Between Text and Knowledge | 165 |
| 9.6.2 Some Practical Applications | 168 |
| 9.6.2.1 Definitional Techniques | 168 |
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